Week Thirteen: Feminism

Feminism in the West

Feminism had begun in the West in the nineteenth century, but it globalized within the twentieth century. These women had one goal and used different techniques to achieve it. Some included writing books that focused on having control over one's body and equality on employment and education. Others, like the French, took direct actions and even went against the law saying they all had abortions even though it was illegal. It brings me hope and joy to hear examples like this because many people think women are weak and can not fend for themselves. One manifesto from 1969 stated: "We are exploited as sex objects, breeders, domestic servants, and cheap labor. We are considered inferior beings, whose only purpose is to enhance men's lives" (1151). Depending on how some women viewed their oppression, some preferred direct action while others preferred political lobbying. However, it was harder for African American women to fight among Caucasian women. African American women wanted "solidarity with black men, rather than separation from them [because it] was essential in confronting a racist America" (1152). 

Feminism in the Global South

There was a major difference between the women in countries such as Asia, Africa, and Latin America and the women in the U.S. and Europe. The issues these countries faced were not solely gender based; in fact, men asked for the women's help. However, it is still frustrating that even when the groups succeeded, women who were apart of the movement were relegated to marginal positions. But fortunately, Eastern and Northern Africa saw significant results. Women in Eastern African made large amounts of self-help groups where they supported the community with schools, births, dispensaries, etc. Then "some became revolving loan societies or bought land or businesses", so women could buy their own land (1152). In Northern Africa, Morocco's feminist movement went against the country's Family Law Code that define women as minors. Eventually, the code was changed and women were equals and were allowed to initiate divorce and claim child custody. 

International Feminism

 When the United Nations declared 1975 as International Women's Year and the next ten years as the Decade for Women, multiple nations had "ratified a UN Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women" (1153). The hope of spreading women's legal equality was becoming a success. However, there were divisions. There were issues on who would be the spokesmen and the North and South had conflicts. The North primarily focused on political and civil rights while the South wanted to include issues of economic justice, decolonization, and disarmament as well.  Also, some groups were against women's equal rights. Muslim delegates thought the exposure of women went against their religion and even an American called feminism a "disease" (1155). Though feminism was still growing, it was very diverse within each country. 

I thought this section of interesting because it displays how different "feminism" can mean to different people. Each person fighting for feminism has their own version of creating equal opportunity. As long they are all fighting for the same cause, a change can happened like it has today. Women have a lot more rights than they used to; however, it is still trying to be fought against. It is very infuriating. Men and women should be equal, it's that simple. 

Week Twelve: Nuclear Weapons

"The most haunting battle of the cold war era was one that never happened." -Robert W. Strayer

While reading chapter 21, the quote (above) caught my attention right away. The author was describing the Cuban missile crisis. During the Cuban missile crisis, Nikita Khrushchev sent nuclear-tipped Soviet misses to Cuba thinking the U.S. would steer away action against Castro. Which, personally, makes no sense to me at all. It is true that nuclear missiles are immensely terrifying, but that would just make the opposing country more defensive rather than scared. Especially with the U.S., a major superpower, would not just leave something that significant alone. American forces blocked the island and prepared for an attack. Fortunately, John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev came to a compromise. The Soviets removed their missiles and a promise was made that America would not invade Cuba. 

From then on, an arms race in nuclear weapons started. "Over the next forty years, the world moved from a mere handful of nuclear weapons to a global arsenal of close to 66,000 warheads." Luckily, both superpowers avoided conflict with one another, fearing a war would lead to a nuclear level. Yet this brought so much tension between the superpowers. The cold war was just a colossal buildup of tension. Sometimes it makes me wonder why the U.S. puts itself into war. Obviously, if both countries know it will lead to a bad result, they should just try to avoid each other. However, I do realize that they still indirectly competed with one another. Either way, it does show that if two countries know there will be a bad result, they should try to avoid provoking one another.

Week Eleven: Propaganda

"I was told I was fighting a war that would end all wars..."-Alfred Anderson

One thing that always intrigued me about the World Wars was the way militaries were able to persuade individuals to go to war just by the use of propaganda. The Great Powers knew how to convince millions of people that their "national identities were profoundly and personally meaningful".  Men even rushed to recruiting offices to enlist before the war could end. It makes me wonder whether I would be persuaded to do such things if I saw the type of propaganda these men saw. Do I love my country to such an extreme? I do not know the answer because as anyone can see, these men ultimately suffered for it in the end. What is fascinating is how posters were such a major impact on why individuals joined the military. 
 WW1
The British Parliament Recruiting Committee used this poster to illustrate a man's responsibility to go to war. Instead of honoring a man, they used shame as a blackmail to make people go to war. 

While most of the posters targeted men, some propaganda posters were targeting women. While many men would view this posters as their responsibility to protect their women, it was also seen as the women's responsibility to have their husbands enlist.

Below are other posters used to get the British and U.S. citizens to join:

This illustration in particular showed the selfishness of the Germans. Here, Belgium civilians are being used as a shield for Germany. Germany believed that Belgium troops would not shoot at their own townsfolk. 















WW2
During this time, posters advertising women workers were starting to appear more:

There are many more propaganda posters that were advertised. They each had different themes such as honoring military work or dehumanizing the enemy. It always peaked my interest when analyzing the meaning behind each one. Now, in modern time, advertisements are now displayed on televisions.

’ The emotional blackmail of using children to shame their elders into fighting was, in fact, employed by most of the belligerents. Women were also assigned the responsibility for ordering men into war. - See more at: https://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/patriotism-and-nationalism#sthash.lHEHyH6U.dpuf

One tactic at a state’s disposal was the use of iconic figures to strengthen a particular point about national identity in order to promote patriotism. These might be real people presented in a mythologised form as national heroes, - See more at: https://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/patriotism-and-nationalism#sthash.lHEHyH6U.dpuf

One tactic at a state’s disposal was the use of iconic figures to strengthen a particular point about national identity in order to promote patriotism. These might be real people presented in a mythologised form as national heroes, - See more at: https://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/patriotism-and-nationalism#sthash.lHEHyH6U.dpuf

One tactic at a state’s disposal was the use of iconic figures to strengthen a particular point about national identity in order to promote patriotism. These might be real people presented in a mythologised form as national heroes, - See more at: https://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/patriotism-and-nationalism#sthash.lHEHyH6U.dpuf

One tactic at a state’s disposal was the use of iconic figures to strengthen a particular point about national identity in order to promote patriotism. These might be real people presented in a mythologised form as national heroes, - See more at: https://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/patriotism-and-nationalism#sthash.lHEHyH6U.dpuf

One tactic at a state’s disposal was the use of iconic figures to strengthen a particular point about national identity in order to promote patriotism. These might be real people presented in a mythologised form as national heroes, - See more at: https://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/patriotism-and-nationalism#sthash.lHEHyH6U.dpuf

Week Ten: Qiu Jin

Qiu Jin

As I was reading chapter nineteen, the section on China caught my attention. Under the section, "The Failure of Conservative Modernization", the issue of gender roles was briefly discussed. However, it did mention an important icon, Qiu Jin. Qiu Jin was a Chinese revolutionary, feminist, and writer. She was nicknamed "Jianju Nüxia" which translated to "Woman Knight of Mirror Lake". She is considered a heroine in China's anti-feudalistic cause.

Qiu Jin was born on November 8, 1875 in Shaoxing, China. She was born to a family of the gentry. Having to listen to her father, she married at 21 but was extremely unhappy. "When I think of him my hair bristles with anger, it's absolutely unbearable." Eventually, she left her husband and two children to study in Japan. She soon became acquainted with many revolutionists and joined relevant societies. She did return to China. There she often dressed in male clothing. "My aim is to dress like a man,. In china, men are strong and women are oppressed because they are supposed to be weak." Soon she advocated women's liberation, including topics such as freedom in marriage, in a woman's magazine. She also discusses the practice of binding women's feet. Qiu Jin longed to serve her country and was determined to overthrow the corrupt Qing government. She joined the Triads and other anti-Qing societies. Eventually, she was arrested and tortured because she refused to talk. She was beheaded on July 15, 1907. Qiu Jin became a national hero and a symbol for women's independence in China.

Sources: 
Engel, KeriLynn. "Qiu Jin, Chinese Feminist & Revolutionary Martyr." Amazing Women In History. Amazing Women In History, 24 Oct. 2012. Web. 01 Apr. 2017.

"Qiu Jin: A Heroine in China's Anti-feudalist Cause." China.org.cn. China.org.cn, 18 Sept. 2011. Web. 01 Apr. 2017.

Week Nine: Chapter Eighteen Summary

Industry & Empire
-Industrial Revolution's productivity of technology & Europe's growing affluence created need for lots of raw materials & agricultural products

• need to sell its own products
• investors found it profitable to invest their money abroad
• social benefits in foreign markets

-Imperialism promised to solve class conflicts while avoiding revolutions or serious redistribution of wealth

• mass nationalism -> competitive international relations
• appeared on economic & social grounds/politically & strategically necessary in international power politics
• overseas expansion more desirable [Suez Canal]

-I.R. changed the way they viewed themselves & others

• Euros thought they were the best/powerful -> opinions of other culture dropped
• Chinese: highly praised -> weak, cunning, conservative, distinct threat
• Africans: nations & kings -> tribes led by chief to emphasize "primitive" qualities
• used modern science [largest skulls] declared Euros more advanced
• hierarchy of race
• Euros had responsibility to civilize "inferior races"
• Misapplied "social Darwinism"

A Second Wave of European Conquests

-focused in Asia & Africa/new players: Germany, Belgium, US, Japan

-Euros had military & firepower advantage [Maxim guns] & won

• virtually everyone in large/complex civilizations of India & Southeast Asia lost political sovereignty, freedom of action, became subjects of Euro. colonial state

-"Scramble for Africa"

• Euro. powers fought one another in only 25yrs
• lots of negotiations & bloody military action
• French: W. Africa (16yrs/village-by-village); British: S. Africa (Boer War against Zulu)
• South Pacific (Australia & New Zealand) conquered by large settlement & diseases -> reduced natives ->became "neo-European"

-U.S. policy of removing Natives to "reservations" = "civilize" & eradicate tribal life & culture

-Ethiopia & Siam(Thailand) avoided colonization

• Ethiopia expanded empire/defeat Italy in Battle of Adowa

-countries sought to enlist Euros. w/ own struggles for power, play off imperial powers against one another, used military action, fight v. futile, negotiated for some independence

Under European Rule

Cooperation & Rebellion

-men found employment, status, & security in Euro. armed forces

• elite family members retained status & wealth

-Euro. education member served colonial state, businesses, teachers, etc./higher education became lawyers, doctors, etc. -> depended class at the expense of the more traditional elites

-Indian Rebellion(1857-1858): military cartridge smeared w/ cow & pig fate angered Muslim & Hindus to believe a plot to render them defiled & to convert to Christianity

• a mutiny among Indian troops in Bengal triggered the rebellion -> spread to other regions of the colony and other social groups
• some rebel leaders said it was an effort to revive an almost-vanished Mughal Empire
• mad British more conservative & cautious about changing Indian society
• convinced to assume direct control over India, ending the era of British East India Company rule in the subcontinent

Colonial Empires with a Difference
-"scientific racism": prominence of race in distinguishing rulers and ruled, Europe coincided with the acquisition of Asian & African colonies
-science & literary studies were inappropriate for the "primitive mind" of "natives"

• Euros. didn't want even the highest ranks of Asians or Africans

-South Africa: large population of Euros. and Africans = racial fears -> efforts to establish race as a legal feature of S.A. society

• separate "homelands", education, public facilities, etc. = apartheid
• wanted economy based off cheap labor w/o African social & political integration

-colonial states were able to penetrate the societies they governed

-Euros. now also created very different way of life, from their own modern transformations

-collect info. on people, "scientifically" organize it, & use to manage societies they governed

• India: British found caste system -> invented a Brahmin version of "traditional India'" that they wanted preserve/scorning "non-Indian" (new elite) educated in Euro. schools & enthusiastic about western ways of life"
• Africa: "tribal Africa"-Euros. identified and/or invented distinct tribes w/ own language, territory, customs, & chief -> made African societies more manageable

-gender ideology & race prejudice

• native men were "feminine", guarded Eur. women, took some men from tribes who were "masculine" -> in British military

-Euros. policies contradicted their own core values & their practices at home

• colonies were essentially dictatorships
• empires were at odds of Euro. national independence
• ranked racial classifications were against Christian/Enlightenment's human equality

-"detribalization" would encourage unrest and challenge colonial rule

• preferred "traditional" rural society w/ abuses of slavery & sati (widow burning)

Week Seven: Chapter Seventeen Summary

Explaining the Industrial Revolution
-"global energy demands began to push against the existing local/regional ecological limits"
-massive extraction of materials from machinery negatively altered the landscape
-enormously increased output of goods and services (Britain = 50%)
-Britain & Europe moved ahead with coal-fired steam engine

• 2nd I.R. which focused on chemicals, telephone,  etc.
• agriculture was affected (pesticides, fertilizers, etc.)

Why Europe?

-Europe had no significant advantage

• India: cotton textile production, sugar, agricultural innovations & math inventions
• China: technological innovations / Asia had economic advantage (life span, wages, etc)
• industrial development was occurring all over (China, India, Brazil, Saudi Arabia, etc.)

-favored innovation, failure to re-create unity of R. Empire may have acted as a stimulus

-well on their way toward capitalist economy/competitive states = innovation

-global network that gave diverse economic/technological resources

• Asia was home of exploration/new goods stimulated drive, Indian textiles fled Euro., America offered silver and other goods to sustain a population

Why Britain?

-most commercialized country: series of agricultural innovations increased output, kept prices low and freed up labor

-political life encouraged commercialization and economic innovation

-science was focused on observation, experiment, measurements, mechanical devices, & commercial applications (Euro.: logic, deduction, math reasoning)

-already had coal/iron ore, isolation to protect from invasions, adjustments for social changes

The First Industrial Society [Britain]

-dramatic increase in production in mining, manufacturing, and services / agriculture was no longer important

-epic transformation of social life

• destroyed old ways = traumatic, conflicts, false starts, insecurity
• free to discover or make themselves new, improved lives
• everyone was not affected in the same way

The British Aristocracy

-landowners used to dominate the British Parliament but declined with aristocracy

-urban/great wealth (business men, etc) became more important

The Middle Classes [20%]

-upper levels consisted of extremely wealthy factory/mine owners, bankers, & merchants

-majority were doctors, lawyers, scientist, smaller business men, teachers, etc.

-Reform Bill of 1832: broaden right to vote for middle class men (not women)

-"respectability": value of social status and virtuous behavior

• "ideas of thrift and hard work, a rigid morality, and cleanliness"
• women were to stay at home and teach children this value
• eventually started working as teachers, telephone operators (took over), etc

-lower class: clerks, salespeople, bank tellers, secretaries, telephone operators, etc.

• "employment represented a claim on membership in the larger middle class & a means of distinguishing themselves clearly from a working class tainted by manual labor"

The Laboring Classes [70%]

-manual workers in mines, ports, factories, construction sites, farms, etc.

-rapid urbanization: overcrowded, inadequate sanitation, polluted water supplies, etc.

-life expectancy was 39.5 years

-men worked tending the machines, supervisory, and more skilled positions

-women worked in textile mills, took "lighter" jobs (no advancement), not allowed in unions

• domestic servants, doing laundry, sewing clothes, etc.

Social Protest

-"friendly societies": working class self-help groups provided insurance, funeral, etc.

-others joined political arena by joining movements, unions, strikes

-Karl Marx

• "capitalism was unstable system, doomed to collapse in a revolutionary upheaval that would give birth to a classless socialist society, thus ending forever the ancient conflict between rich and poor"
• combined impact of Euro.'s industrial, political, & scientific revolutions found expression
• proclaimed scientist, discovered law of social development ("scientific socialism")
• Utopian vision of human freedom and community

-Labour Party (1890s): advocated a reformist program & peaceful democratic -> socialism

• "social democracy": rejecting class struggle & revolutionary emphasis of Marxism

-rise of middle & lower middle class (30%)

-wages rose, cheap imported food improved diets, mortality rates fell, etc.

Week Six: Echoes of Revolution Summary

The Abolition of Slavery

-roughly  1780 to 1890

-enlightenment thinkers saw slavery as violation of the natural rights of every person

• American/French revolutions saw violation of liberty and equality
• religious voices were accepted

-slavery wasn't essential for economic progress & "politically unwise" (ex. Britain)

-Secular, Religious, Economic, Political ideas = put pressure on govt.

-Britain forbade sale of slaves and eventually emancipated those who were enslaved

• naval vessels patrolled the Atlantic = intercepted trade boats/freed prisoners
• nations followed ^ and latin american countries did the same

-economic lives of former slaves did not improve dramatically

• sought economic autonomy on their own land and unoccupied land

-brought on labor shortages & new wave of migration = indentured servants were forced to work barely above conditions of slavery

-"radical reconstruction": full political rights/some power -> by cruel punishments/losing the power

Nations and Nationalism

-idea: "humankind was divided into separate nations, each with a distinct culture and territory and deserving an independent political life"

-French Revolution declared that sovereignty lay with "the people"

-"people felt themselves to be citizens of a nation, deeply bound to their fellows by ties of blood, culture, or common experience" = nationalism

-Europe's modern transformation was facilitated nationalism

-"popular nationalism made the normal rivalry among Euro. states more competitive for colonies in Asia and Africa

-"civic nationalism": "the people"; "particular territory/people of various backgrounds could assimilate into the dominant culture

• others thought as only those who share a common ancestry

-nationalism could be used to combat socialism and feminism

Feminist Beginnings

-many women believed that the "ideals of liberty and equality must include women"

-women found other opportunities than housework: temperance movements, charities, abolitionism, missionary work, social and pacifist organizations

-first organized expression: women's rights conference in Seneca Falls, New York (1848)

• Elizabeth Cady Stanton
• established Women's Bible

-women refused to take husband's surname and wore trousers under skirts

-how access to schools, universities, and professions

-1870's focused on issue of suffrage and were growing constituency

-American/French were peaceful while Britain had violence

-1900: women got into universities, manage/control property & wages, professions, voting (1893 New Zealand)

-A Doll's House: play where woman leaves husband/children b/c oppressive marriage

-opposition believe there would be damage to reproductive system = women selfish

-spread to other parts of world, not as big effect